Advances in Applied Science and Technology Vol. 5

Laterite has been widely defined as a highly weathered material, rich in secondary oxides of iron, aluminium, or both. It is void or nearly void of basic primary silicates, but it may contain large amounts of quartz and kaolinite. A distinctive feature of laterite and lateritic soils is the higher proportion of sesquioxides of iron and/or aluminium relative to the other chemical components. This study proposed conceptual models for the determination of soil cohesion based on the correlations of soil cohesion with fines content. This was with a view to contributing to timely, less laborious and cost effective determination of cohesion of lateritic soils. Selected lateritic soil samples were subjected to laboratory analyses. The fines were separated from the coarse component of the soils after which the samples were remoulded in varying ratios (fines: coarse) from 10:90 to 100:0 in 10% increment. The samples were then subjected to an unconsolidated-undrained triaxial test to determine the shear strength parameters. Quantitative relationships between fines content and cohesion of the soil samples were developed. It was found that the cohesion of the soil samples generally increased with an increase in fines content; the polynomial relationships gave the best fitting between the fines content and cohesion of the soil samples. From the findings of this research work, the following conclusions are made in relation to the objectives of the research: (i) The cohesion of the studied soil samples generally increased with an increase in fines content; (ii) the best fitting between the fines content and cohesion of the soil samples. The results are valid within the study area, the tested materials and the procedure outlined in this paper. It is recommended to perform more experiments to validate the finding in this research.

Literature search shows that research on feed stocks for the production of biodiesel in Africa have not been well documented. To close this gap, a research project was initiated to measure the fuel and physicochemical properties of common vegetable oils in Nigeria. The works on cashew nut oil has been reported and that of rubber seed oil is being reported in this paper. Rubber tree seed oil has several industrial applications but not all the fuel and physicochemical properties are available in literature, hence the aim of this study is to provide the properties of not only the oil but also the biodiesel, 20% and 10% blends with diesel. For the purpose of characterization, the oil was extracted by soxhlet extraction and the free fatty acids was measured and found to be 23.68% which can react with the sodium hydroxide catalyst to form soaps that can inhibit the separation of the esters and glycerin. To prevent this, acid catalyst was first used to neutralize and reduce the high level of free fatty acids in the oil to less than 2% before using sodium hydroxide for the transesterification process. The resulting biodiesel was washed, dried and blended 20% and 10% with diesel. The fatty acid profiles were determined by chromatography analyzer and the oil was found to be unsaturated. The characterization of the oil, its biodiesel, and the blends were done according to ASTM and EU methods and the results obtained show that the properties of the biodiesel and blends are similar to those of diesel which shows conclusively that it can be used as alternative fuel for diesel engines.

The apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) is believed to have originated in the Caucasus mountains of south-western Asia. The cultivated apples belong to the species Malus pumila or Malus sylvestris. Apple is undoubtedly the most important temperate fruit. It is the most important temperate fruit in the world and India stands 5th in the production of apple. In India, apple cultivation is extremely profitable and has become the major industry of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. The present commercial cultivars of apple are far improved from the wild apples from which they developed over many centuries. And to commercialize improved varieties of apple in India, the varieties need to be evaluated for their growth characteristics. Keeping this view, the study was taken to evaluate four new exotic varieties of apple viz., Super Chief Sandidge, Gala Red Lum, Fuji Zhen Aztec and Golden Clone B grafted on rootstock M9T337 for their various growth and phenological characteristics. The study showed statistically significant differences among varieties in their various characters. Tree morphological characteristics revealed variety Super Chief Sandidge to be the most dwarf variety with least tree height (1.31 m) and incremental growth in tree height (23.64 cm) while the variety Fuji Zhen Aztec reported to be most vigorous with an average tree height of (1.96 m), and highest increase in tree height in a season (31.04 cm). Various phenological stages were observed earliest in variety Gala Red Lum and last in Golden Clone B. All the varieties appeared to be promising under Kashmir condition and can be recommended for further research, mass multiplication and ultimate adoption by orchardists of valley. On the basis of their vegetative behavior, Super Chief Sandidge appeared to be highly dwarf variety in terms of tree morphology and other as moderate. It was concluded that the different exotic cultivars studied had different flowering phenological features which will permit to establish proper varietal combinations for pollination to improve profitability of high density apple orchards. Further, it can be suggested that in variety Super Chief Sandidge further close plantings at the rate of 3906 trees/ha can be recommended to utilize the inter tree space more efficiently and the productivity further high.

Aims: To generate new medicaments for control and treatment of the parasitic protozoan Toxoplasma gondii.
Study Design: Structure similarity search and isostere search was conducted over a broad range of structure categories. Correlation and highest similarity scores were implemented to select the best drug candidates.
Place and Duration of Study: University of Nebraska, Department of Chemistry, Durham Science Center, 6001 Dodge Street, Omaha Nebraska 68182, from June 2016 to February 2017.
Methodology: Utilizing pyrimethamine as the parent compound, a broad range of similar structures and isosteres were found by applying search methods. The compounds having the highest correlation and similarity scores were selected for the study of molecular properties. The molecular properties were determined and examined for underlying relationships by pattern recognition hierarchical cluster analysis and K-means cluster analysis.
Results: Thirty compounds were identified to have a very high level of structure similarity or isosteric relationship to pyrimethamine. The molecular structures and molecular properties are presented for all compounds, inclusive of pyrimethamine. Hierarchical cluster analysis and K-means cluster analysis indicated compounds with highest underlying similarity to pyrimethamine. Box plots showed the overall distribution of important pharmaceutical properties, such as molecular weight, Log P, polar surface area, number of rotatable bonds, molecular volume, and number of hydrogen bond donors. Structure components are compared to elucidate potential clinical activity. Multiple regression is applied on all compounds to generate a numerical relationship for prediction of similar compounds. Save for only one isostere, all compounds showed zero violations of the Rule of 5, indicating favorable druglikeness and bioavailability.
Conclusion: Thirty compounds highly analogous to pyrimethamine were identified following heuristic search course. The molecular properties were determined for all compounds and indicated genuine potential for treatment of toxoplasmosis. Correlation of structure and pattern recognition methods indicated 30 compounds of clinical potential and property analogy to pyrimethamine. All compounds in this study showed favorable bioavailability, having zero violations of the rule of 5. Hierarchical cluster analysis and K-means cluster analysis showed that the isostere compounds were most similar to pyrimethamine. Multiple regression analysis produced a mathematical model for predicting properties of compounds of similar medicinal use. The study and design of new medicinal agents for treatment of protozoan infections is a vital endeavor with great demand in the future.

Apple (Malus × domestica Borkh) occupies a significant place in the horticultural wealth of temperate zone. The growth and productivity of apple in Indian conditions can be optimised by replacing outdated depleted standard Delicious cultivars by the improved high yielding cultivars and adopting standard clonal rootstocks instead of seedling stock in addition to improved management practices. The present investigation was undertaken to make a preliminary assessment for studying the performance of newly released apple cultivars viz, Lal Ambri, Sunhari, Shireen, Firdous and Akbar on clonal rootstocks M-9 and MM-106. The experiment was carried out at the Experimental Farm of SKUAST-Kashmir, and was laid out in a randomized block design with ten treatment combinations. The results obtained revealed that the varieties excepting shireen worked on MM-106 rootstock resulted in higher plant height, per cent fruit set and fruit retention and the plants which were raised on M-9 rootstock resulted in more plant girth and plant spread. Commencement of flowering, fruit maturity, fruit weight and firmness occurred earlier in all varieties worked on M-9. Among these tested varieties, Lal Ambri, Shireen and Firdous developed red colour intensity excepting Sunhari and Akbar. It is concluded that apple trees raised on MM-106 rootstock resulted in higher yield than the trees raised on M-9 rootstock. Cultivar Akbar was better in comparison to other varieties, Lal Ambri showed maximum red colour intensity. Fruits from trees on M-9 rootstock showed higher red colour intensity. However, Shireen performed better in these parameters on M-9 rootstock.

Moringa oleifera Lamarck (Moringaceae family) is a plant native from the Western and sub-Himalayan parts of Northwest India, Pakistan and Afghanistan. This species is widely cultivated across Africa, South-East Asia, Arabia, South America and Caribbean Islands. M. oleifera culture is also being distributed in the Semi-Arid Northeast of Brazil. It is a multiuse life tree with great environmental economic importance in industrial and medical areas. This review reports different purposes of M. oleifera including sustaining environmental resources, soil protection and shelter for animals. This plant requires not much care and distinct parts have bioactive compounds. Moringa tissues used in human and animal diets, also withdraw pollutants from water. The seeds with coagulant properties used in water treatment for human consumption, remove waste products like surfactants, heavy metals and pesticides. The oil extracted from seeds is used in cosmetic production and as biodiesel. M. oleifera tissues also contain proteins with different biological activities, including lectins, chitin-binding proteins, trypsin inhibitors, and proteases. The lectins are reported to act as insecticidal agents against Aedes aegypti (vector of dengue, chikungunya and yellow fevers) and Anagasta kuehniella (pest of stored products) and also showed water coagulant, antibacterial, antineoplastic and blood anticoagulant activities. The presence of trypsin inhibitors has been reported in M. oleifera leaves and flowers. The inhibitor from flowers is toxic to larvae of A. aegypti and to the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi. The flowers also contain caseinolytic proteases that are able to promote clotting of milk. In this sense, M. oleifera is a promising tree from a biotechnological point of view, since it has shown a great variety of uses and it is a source of several compounds with a broad range of biological activities.

To initiate phylogenetic studies of Isophya species based on extensive mtDNA comparison, specific primers were developed and the partial 16S rRNA-ND1 region of mtDNA was amplified, sequenced and used to generate phylogenetic trees presented in this study.

Fresh Date fruits “Barhi CV.” were freeze dried as slices to characterize the dried fruit quality. CIELAB color parameters ( L*, a*, and b* ) were measured as well as Chroma, the hue angle, the browning index and the total color difference parameters were derivative. The samples were stored for 12 months at three temperatures of 5, 15 and 25°C with an uncertainty of ±1°C to assess the color change kinetics and quantify the degree of change during storage. The L*, a* and b* values for fresh samples at room temperature were 93.16±0.15, 18.76±0.45 and 61.70±0.32, respectively, while they were 78.72±0.51, 29.52±0.07 and 62.75±0.14 after 12 months.

To explain the changing kinetics of the date slices, zero, first and second order models were attempted. Based on statistical analysis, the first-order model was found to be the best model for all CIELAB parameters. Analysis on the kinetic constants reveals that the temperature could affect the resulting color of the dried product, in turn, it contributes to the color changes of the freeze dried Barhi during storage. The values obtained for the activation energy for freeze-dried Barhi based on the selected models were between 4930 and 10850 kJ. mol-1 which were somewhat different from the reported values due to the variation in sample’s type, treatment or process. In the present study, Barhi fruit slices were freeze-dried ( FD ) and examined. The effect of the FD process on the color change, water activity, and moisture content was determined over 12-month storage time. Based on the experimental data, all CIELAB color parameters were significantly affected by temperature and storage time. Based on the statistical analysis, the first-order model could be used to fit the data for of color change in freeze-dried Barhi fruit slices.

In this review, we approached various aspects of Opuntia sp. that are a type of forage cacti. These plants stand out for its energy potential and have peculiar morphological and physiological features that allow tolerance for long periods of drought. In addition, Opuntia species has a cosmopolitan distribution, found mainly in arid and semi-arid regions. Opuntia sp. presents phenotypic variations related to weather conditions, like polyploidy occurring in a large number of populations and high hybridization capacity. These plants have a shrub morphological characteristic with ramifications, variable size, from creeping until arboreal; it can reach up to 4 m high and a series of fleshy stems with, depending on time of year, flowers and fruits. Opuntia sp. have a typical physiology with the photosynthetic process called crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM); stomata close during the day in order to maintain hydration of tissues. The chemical composition of Opuntia sp. varies according to species, age of reticule, and season. These cacti have excellent nutritional value with high water content (about 90%), digestibility in vitro (about 75%) and vitamin A; in addition, they have organic matter (67%), energy (2,61 Mcal.kg-1), crude fiber (4.3%), phosphorus (0.08 to 0.18%), calcium (4.2%), potassium (2.3%) and magnesium (1.4%), but shows low protein content (about 5%). The proper yield of the crop needs a climate with 400-800 mm annual rainfall, relative humidity above 40% and day/night temperature from 25 to 15°C. The wide variety of applications demonstrates the versatility of this plant species, being used in food and feed, agriculture, medicine, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries, in water and wastewater treatments, and even as insecticide agent. Opuntia genus comprises about 1500 species and O. ficus indica is the most important as forage and human uses.

Aims: Foods are analyzed for their content for important reasons that include: Adherence to government regulations, nutritional labeling, authentication, inspection (for grading), safety, quality control and detection of adulterants.

Study Design: Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) analysis of various commercial cereals was accomplished. Commercial drinks were analyzed by ion chromatography instruments.

Place and Duration of Study: The investigation was carried out at the University of Nebraska, Omaha Nebraska from January 2014 to May 2014.

Methodology: Cereals were treated in strong acid to extract heavy metals. Following dilution steps, these extracts were injected into ICP-MS for analysis. Quantity of metals as well as isotope distribution was established. Commercial sports drinks were examined for clarification and injected into ion chromatography instruments for analysis for calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, chloride, phosphate, sulphate and fluoride.

Results: (ICP-MS) analysis of various commercial cereals showed a content of chromium, nickel, copper, zinc and traces of lead. In general, zinc was found to be highest in content within the cereal products analyzed ranging from 2.951 mg/kilogram to 90.56 mg/kilogram (mean = 58.38 mg/kilogram), followed by copper ranging from 1.218 mg/kilogram to 4.395 mg/kilogram (mean = 2.756 mg/kilogram). This is followed in amounts (by average of all samples tested) by nickel, lead and chromium. Chromium, copper, nickel and zinc are considered human micronutrients. Sport drinks are consumed for their mineral content and enhancement of electrolytes. Various sports drinks analyzed showed both cation and anion minerals in their content, which included: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfate, phosphate, chloride, fluoride and nitrate ions.

Conclusion: ICP-MS and ion chromatography are versatile approaches for analysis of food nutrient value and metals content. ICP-MS can track the absorption of heavy metals into commercial cereals. Ion chromatography can identify adulterants in sport drinks. Current ion chromatography instrumentation can quickly and with versatility assay a broad concentration of cations and anions in electrolyte mixtures. The monitoring of electrolyte content is an important aspect for the clinical use of such mixtures for the treatment of disease. Sensitive and versatile methodologies for monitoring nutrients inside food products will enhance their safety, government compliance, nutritional value and the demands from consumers.

The Caatinga biome is a unique Brazilian biome predominant in the Northeast of Brazil and situated in the Semiarid Region. The rhizosphere comprises the narrow zone of soil that is directly influenced by the roots of plants and associated soil microorganisms. It is a dynamic environment with maximum microbial activity due to the presence of root exudates and radicular secretions representing the major carbon source readily available to microorganisms. The typical rhizospheric community in the Caatinga biome comprises microorganisms with different types of metabolism and adaptive responses to changes depending on soil temperature, plant species, nutritional status, age, stress, illness, and other factors. Assays for a variety of soil enzymes give an indication of the functional diversity assumed by the microbes present. A useful characteristic of the rhizosphere isolates is the ability of the rhizobacteria to excrete enzymes such as cellulases and L-asparaginases. Among the important species found in the Caatinga biome is Poincianella pyramidalis, which is common in the Northeast of Brazil and is popularly known as “catingueira”. This plant species is heavily exploited by the local population as a source of firewood, charcoal, fodder and for medicinal purposes. This review will consider the structure of the Caatinga biome in terms of its biotechnological potential, with special emphasis on such components as the rhizosphere and enzymes associated with P. pyramidalis.

The larger carangids are most important fishery in the coast of Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu. They are caught by large meshed gillnets and hooks in these region. However, there is no selectivity studies conducted on this fishery especially in this coast. The selectivity nature of every gear is important for managing the fishery as well as for conservation of resources. Large meshed gillnets having mesh sizes of 13.5 cm, 14 cm, 14.5 cm and 15 cm and Hooks No.5,6,7 and 8 were chosen for determining the selectivity and fishing power of the gears to capture the larger carangid Caranx heberi of Kanyakumari coast of India. The catch data were analysed using the software GILLNET (Generalized Including Log-Linear N Estimation Technique) comprised of the methodology of SELECT (Share Each Length Class Total) by fitting various uni-normal models viz., normal scale, normal location, lognormal, gamma and bi-normal model. Models were tested using various selectivity parameters like Model Deviance, Dispersion Parameter and residual plots. Bi-normal model was found appropriate for gillnet catch data while normal location for hook catch data despite over dispersion was common in both the fits. The mesh size of 13.5 cm and hook No.5 and 6 were found as optimum size for capturing larger carangid C. heberi. Comparison of the selective effects of different gears is complex particularly between selective gears. Further, the mean size of fish caught from one gear to another gear varies due to various biological factors such as availability, abundance, age, sex, and size, or environmental factors such as fishing ground, depth, etc. Selection curves of gillnets and hooks of the present study are assumed as bell shaped multi-normal and uni-normal in nature respectively. In this study, hook selectivity data fit appropriately with uni-normal model despite it is complex in nature in general. It is also opined that fit may depend on models applied though it is normally influenced by biological behavior and capturing methods. This study revealed that gillnet yielded obvious size selection range than hooks in capturing larger carangid, C. heberi of the study area.