Advances in Applied Science and Technology Vol. 1

Critical Analysis of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Ring Size Distribution in Marshy Soils and Sediments in Warri City and Its Environs, Southern Nigeria

I. E. Agbozu — 2019-06-18

Industrialization and urbanization have advanced socio-economic development. As a consequence, a myriad of environmental problems have become prevalent in urban areas, including contamination by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) via various pathways. PAHs are ubiquitous environmental pollutants and are released into the environments via various routes. They have been largely detected in various environmental media, such as organism, atmosphere, water, soils and sediments. This study was carried out to analyze the ring size distribution of PAHs in marshy soils and sediment samples in Warri City, Southern Nigeria. The samples were collected during dry and rainy seasons from four locations within Warri and a control location in Agbarho, 20 km away. Levels of 16 priority PAHs listed in United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) were determined using Gas Chromatography coupled with Flame Ionization detector (GC-FID). This study was carried from January to March and June to August, representing the dry and wet seasons respectively. It was observed that PAHs concentration was generally higher in dry than rainy seasons for soil and sediment samples. The two-ringed PAHs analysed were naphthalene, 2-methyl naphthalene and 1methyl naphthalene while the three-ringed PAHs were acenaphthylene, acenaphthene, fluorine, anthracene and phenanthrene. The four-ringed PAHs were fluoranthene, chrysene, pyrene and benzo(a)anthracene. The five-ringed PAHs were benzo(a)pyrene, benzo(b)fluoranthene and benzo(k)fluoranthrene while the six-ringed PAHs were indeno (1,2,3-c,d) pyrene and dibenzo(a,h)anthracene, and benzo(g,h.i)perylene. Moreover, the ring size analysis revealed that for soils, two to three-ringed as well as four-ringed PAHs were more predominant in Ugboroke location, five-ringed PAHs in Okotie and six-ringed PAHs in Ogunu location. Overall, five-ringed PAHs were more predominant in Okotie location in the dry season. However, for sediments, two to three-ringed as well as four-ringed PAHs were more predominant in Okotie location, five-ringed PAHs in Ogunu and six-ringed PAHs in Ugboroke location. Overall, two to three-ringed PAHs were more predominant in Okotie location in the dry season for sediment samples. Furthermore, in the marshy soil samples, the ring size distribution is as follows; 5-ring PAHs ˃ 2-3 ring PAHs ˃ 6-ring PAHs ˃ 4-ring PAHs. Considering the dominance of 5-ring PAHs; high lipophilicity, low water solubility and low volatility PAHs are prevalent in the study area. As a result, they are predominantly in solid state, decreasing their mobility and increasing their persistence in the environment. In the marshy sediment samples, the ring size distribution is as follows; 2 to 3-ring PAHs ˃ 5-ring PAHs ˃ 4-ring PAHs ˃ 6-ring PAHs. The dominance of 2 to 3-ring PAHs indicates that the PAHs found in the study area may have low lipophilicity, high water solubility and high volatility. As a consequence of their high volatility, they may readily appear in the atmosphere predominantly in gaseous form. Furthermore, being highly soluble in water, they are readily available for biological uptake and degradation. Hence, they are less toxic with decreased carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic potential.

Sedimentary Processes and Environments of Deposition of Part of the Benin Formation, Southeastern Nigeria

N. U. Essien — 2019-06-18

This chapter involves the study of the sedimentological processes and depositional environment from two major exposed sections of the Benin Formation in the vicinity of the southern fringes of the Calabar Flank. Stratigraphic logs were produced; textural description was carried out using 20 samples collected from the road cuts. Within the mudstone interval, lenticular beds and skolithos traces were observed. Other sedimentary structures (cross beds, ripple marks) were measured and analysed for paleocurrent patterns. The results from the textural analyses of the sandstones show that the sediments were predominantly medium to coarse grain (ɸ -0.13 – 1.63), moderate to poorly sorted (ɸ 1.02 – 2.03). Skewness and kurtosis values range from strongly coarse - coarse skewed (ɸ -0.66 – 0.13) and leptokurtic to platykurtic (ɸ 0.72 – 2.00) respectively. Bivariate analysis reveals that 100% of the sandstone samples are continental (fluvial) in origin with predominant deposition within rolling and saltation sub-population of the C-M plot. The points were restricted to the P-Q section of the C-M plot signifying high energy deposition. Lenticular beds characterized tidal influence in the thick mudflat deposit. Break in sedimentation was identified by the presence of a paleosol and the unimodal and unidirectional pattern of the paleocurrent markers suggest fluvial setting

Estimation of Environmental Chemical Pollution of Al-Baiji Oil Refinery in Iraq

Mohemid M. Al-Jebouri — 2019-06-18

All kinds of industries like oil plants, petrochemicals and chemical industries are causing tremendous chemical pollution of environment components like air, water and soil. The first target of chemical pollution is the environment of the refinery itself. It was seen that the protection and control measures of chemical pollution locally followed for oil refinery environment and its community were very limited. This worse situation might lead health hazards to workers in oil refinery and consequently to its vicinity. This study was conducted to assess the degree of chemical pollution and impact caused by Al-Baiji Oil Refinery of Iraq on its own environment. Six heavy metals concentrations were estimated in selected samples of soil and water collected from different sites in oil refinery by using atomic absorption spectrophotometery. These metals were cadmium, copper, nickel, lead, vanadium and zinc. Estimation of pollutant gases utilized a portable digital device. Results showed that some of the heavy metals tested (Cu and Zn) were at acceptable levels whereas the other four heavy metals (cadimium, nickel, lead and vanadium) revealed higher values than maximum allowable limits. Determination of hydrogen sulphide (H2S), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO) and oxygen (O2) gases were also done. Acceptable concentrations of H2S (4.16)ppm and CO (29.5)ppm were recorded, while those of NO2 (0.108)ppm and O2 (20.6%)ppm were not acceptable. Inhalation of metal particles might be more dangerous than through gastrointestinal tract (GIT) or dermal routes. Concentration of gaseous pollutants was almost close to the acceptable concentrations, with exception of nitrogen dioxide which was noted to be more than the acceptable limits. It was concluded that concentrations of heavy metals in soil and water of oil refinery were higher than the maximum allowable levels recommended by WHO. Gases of Al-Baiji oil refinery of Iraq especially NO2 were elevated too. These high levels of chemical pollutants suggest a lack of efficient control measures in the refinery. Consequently, this situation might lead to pathophysiological changes of human body systems particularly the respiratory tract of refinery workers and the vicinity community.

Impacts of Flood Simulation in 3D and SWAT Environment of Terengganu River Catchment

Ibrahim Sufiyan — 2019-06-18

Flood is a natural hazard influenced by climatic and anthropogenic factors. The Terengganu River catchment is located near the South China Sea has been flooding during heavy monsoon season with strong rain-bearing winds to the interior coastal zones of Kuala Terengganu. The ArcSWAT2012 extension of ArcGIS10.3 and ArcScene10.3 has been used to design 3D models simulations to predict flood risk event through the stream flow and elevation data derived from ASTER DEM. The Hydrologic Response Units (HRUs) provided the sub-basins parameters which are overlaid with the real-time simulations to determine which sub-basins are affected by flood risk. The flood animation is developed for mitigation and quick decision making for safety and evacuation of flood victims in the Terengganu River catchment. The 3D simulations produce flood risk zones models which illustrate the affected zones by the flood. The 25 sub-basins parameters have distinct characters which influence the stream flow, soils, slopes and land cover. That represent areas affected by flood in Kuala Terengganu. The 25 sub-basins parameters have unique characteristics that influence the river flow, land cover, soil and slopes. One of the effective ways of flood monitoring is to see it physically occurring or happening in real-time. The solution is to set the model at the simulation in the 3D environment. The Terengganu River catchment was successfully delineated and simulated using the sub-basins to identify zones that are affected by the flood risk. The impacts of flood risk usually take place during the monsoon period, especially in Peninsular Malaysia. The Terengganu catchment is liable to flooding during the period of monsoon. The average rainfall during flash flood reaches to 3000mm of rain, with more than 24 hours of a continuous heavy rain shower. The flood event mostly affects peninsular Malaysia from Decembers to January.

Air Temperature Time Series Trend Analysis of Upper Ganga Canal Command by Mann Kendall Test

Nitin Mishra — 2019-06-18

Worldwide climatologists are investigating to find a possible relation of climate change with anthropogenic behavior by studying trends in different climatic parameters. However, the changes in temperature are not equal for all regions especially in India and have localized intensity and must be quantified locally to manage the natural resources. Aim of the study is to determine trend in annual mean and monthly Temperature time series using nonparametric methods (i.e. the Mann–Kendall and Sen’s T tests). The magnitudes of trend in a Temperature time series have been estimated by Sen’s estimator method. Auto correlation effect is reduced from the Temperature series before applying the Mann–Kendall test. In the present study, an investigation has been made to study the spatial and temporal variability in the maximum, the minimum of Upper Ganga Canal Command located in Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand on monthly, annual and seasonal series from 1901 to 2018. The annual maximum and minimum temperatures have increased by 0.63°C and 0.64°C, respectively, over the past 118 years. On a seasonal basis, the winters are warmer than summers. The temperature decreased during the less urbanized period of 1901 to 1951 and increased during the more urbanized period of 1961 to 2018. It is also found that the minimum temperature increased at higher rate (0.43°C) and the maximum (0.33°C) air temperatures, during the more urbanized period. The study analyzed the temperature data of 118 years from 1901 to 2018 to determine the trend of temperature in the Upper Ganga Canal Command region. As this region is rapidly growing, any change in the temperature trend pattern may have considerable impact on the people of this region. The Z values of the MK Test revealed an increasing trend in temperature. It can, therefore, be concluded that there may be an impact on climate change, contributing to the prolonged and higher temperatures which are rising with time. Similarly, Sen’s Slope Estimator has also estimated an increasing magnitude of slope for the temperature data.

Modeling Crustal Structures of Southern Nigeria Basins from Aeromagnetic Data: Implication on Hydrocarbon Prospectivity

D. A. Obi — 2019-06-18

Southern Nigeria has major and minor sedimentary basins. This study covers parts of 5 sedimentary basins in southern Nigeria, this includes the Niger Delta, Benue Trough, Calabar Flank, Mamfe basin and Lower Benue Trough. Aeromagnetic data has been used by many authors worldwide in evaluation of subsurface basin configuration. This study covers parts of five basins (Niger Delta, Calabar Flank, Anambra Basin, Mamfe Basin, and Lower Benue Trough) in Nigeria. The study utilized twenty aeromagnetic maps on a scale of 1:100,000. The maps were digitized manually along flight lines and a total of 16,689 data points obtained. The data was processed using computer techniques including map merging, reduction to pole, polynomial and power spectrum filtering for residual and regional anomaly separation, and forward and inverse 2.5D Saki modeling. Results obtained from power spectrum depth analysis indicate depth to magnetic sources vis – a –vis sediment thickness from the Niger Delta area (2.75 km - 3.75 km), Anambra basin (1.5 km – 2.6 km), Calabar Flank (1.3 km – 2.3 km), Mamfe basin (2.0 km – 3.4 km), and Lower Benue Trough (1.5 km – 3.2 km). Also, depth to basement results from forward and inverse modeling indicate the Niger Delta has thickness of sediments ranging between 1.0 km- 8.0 km, Anambra basin (1.4 km – 2.7 km), Calabar Flank (0.8 km- 2.5 km), Mamfe Basin (1.0 km – 2.7 km), and Lower Benue Trough (1.4 km – 2.7 km). Also, results from modeled number of intrusives indicate that the Calabar Flank has five intrusives, Niger Delta has four intrusives, Mamfe basin has six intrusives, Anambra basin has five intrusives, and Lower Benue Trough has four intrusives. The implications of the increased number of intrusives are that generated hydrocarbons might be converted to gas, this is more likely in areas around Calabar Flank, Mamfe basin and Anambra basins, given the high number of occurrence of intrusives within these areas. Whereas areas around the Niger Delta and Lower Benue Trough with significantly increased depth and lower number of intrusive are less prone to excessive heat from the intrusive and may produce more oil. The study support further exploration activities within the Niger Delta and Lower Benue Trough areas. The significance of this study is the wide range appraisal of the basin architecture and configuration of the offshore and inland basins in Southern Nigeria. The Niger Delta basin areas of Portharcourt, Bonny with sediment thickness of about 8.0km and less occurrence of intrusives has the highest hydrocarbons exploration potentials. The Bansara area within the Mamfe basin has (2.6 km) sediment thickness that could generate hydrocarbons given that another condition is favourable, but the presence of numerous intrusives may make the area prone to excessive heat and may produce more gas than oil. The Anambra basin and the Lower Benue Trough have a moderate depth of sediments thickness(2.5km) and less number of intrusives, these areas came second to the Niger Delta among the studied basins for good prospects in hydrocarbon exploration investigations. It is concluded that this study reveals the order of preference of the choice of investigating the hydrocarbon prospective potentials of Southern Nigerian basins using the potential field magnetic method, it is recommended that other geophysical methods such as gravity, and seismic be used to identify possible hydrocarbon habitats within the Southern Nigeria Basins.

Hybird, Solar and Biomass Energy System for Heating Greenhouse Sweet Coloured Pepper

S. M. Abdellatif — 2019-06-18

The main drawback of greenhouse heating systems based on solar energy is the unavailability at nighttime and the variation of its value from hour to hour and month to another during daylight-time. However, use the combination of two-source of renewable energy (solar energy and biomass heat energy) successfully provides appropriate amount of heat energy for heating greenhouse at nighttime. The commercial greenhouses have the highest demand of heat energy for heating the indoor air as compared with other agricultural industry sectors. The investigation presented in this article is aimed at evaluating the technical and design feasibility of using biomass heat energy to assist the solar energy heating system at the eastern area of coastal delta, Egypt (Latitude and longitude are 31.045°N and 31.37°E, respectively, and altitude 6.0 m above the sea level). The hybrid heating system (solar and biomass heating systems) is mainly consists of two different heating systems, a complete solar heating system (6 collectors, storage tank and heat exchanger) and biomass burner (water and air coils, and air heat exchanger). The obtained results reveal that, over 180 days heating season (from November 2015 to March 2016) the solar heating system collected 12712 kWh (45.763 GJ) of which 12316 kWh (44.338 GJ) of solar heat energy was stored in the storage tank. It provided 30.32% of the total heat energy required for heating the greenhouse. The biomass heating system provided 19795 kWh (71.262 GJ) of heat energy which provided 58.55% of the total heat energy required for heating the greenhouse (225.389 kWh). Ultimately, the heat energy provided by the hybrid heating system (88.87%) has been used successfully to heat up the indoor air of the commercial greenhouse sweet coloured pepper. It also provided high water use efficiency of 29.860 kg/m3. High water use efficiency (29.860 kg/m3) and high annual irrigation water productivity (447.9 LE/m3) were achieved during this study.

Water Stress on Springs of Lesser Himalayan Region

Nitin Kumar Agrawal — 2019-06-18

The lesser Himalayan range dominantly consists of tectonic setting that is characterized by multiple deformations resulting in superimposed folding and repeated faulting and thrusting. The rocks of lesser Himalayan are highly weathered and immensely fractured that helps them to act as filter and regulates the groundwater paths for the springs as conduit (rapid) or diffused (slow) flow. Springs of Uttarakhand, India are back bone for domestic water availability during rainy and especially during non rainy season even though they are highly ignored. A study was taken up at Chandrabhaga and Danda watersheds in the mountainous region of Garhwal, Uttarakhand to analyse rainfall and spring flow pattern and to suggest water transfer plan to supplement the water availability during lean season. Regular spring flow and automated hydro-meteorological data were collected for July 1999 to June 2010. The second order polynomial relationship is found best fit between annual rainfall and annual average spring flow. Spring wise water availability was compared with required domestic water demand and actual domestic water uses for identification of springs under water deficit /surplus for three scenarios of spring uses such as 24, 12 and 06 hrs in a day. Based on water availability of the springs, the water transfer plans, working under gravity for springs has been suggested. Study suggested a temporary storage of spring water, water transfer plan among the springs and planning to increase the infiltration and water retention power of soil. It is also recommended to promote horticulture along with animal husbandry for effective socioeconomic development. The average water availability through all springs is 266766 l/d in Chandrabhaga and 262055 l/d in Danda watershed, which is always greater than required domestic water demand. On the other hand the minimum water availability through all springs is always less than the required domestic water demand but is greater than actual domestic water use. It suggests that the water availability is limiting factor for water use and there is a need to increase the minimum water availability through springs. Water transfer plan in collaboration with the existing social laws, from “excess” spring to “deficit” spring, through gravity flow are suggested for both the watershed

Assessment and Distribution of Metal Pollutants in Fadama Soils along River Ngadda and Alau Dam in Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria

P. H. Bukar — 2019-06-18

Elemental metal pollutants concentration levels and their distribution in soils obtained from farmlands along the bank of river Ngadda and Alau dam in Maiduguri, Borno State, and North-East of Nigeria is presented. The study was aimed at determining the levels of contamination of soils with metal pollutants used for fadama farming along the bank of river Ngadda and Alau dam with the objectives of assessing the contamination levels of the soils with metal pollutants from the various farmlands at the various sampled sites of study, and the distribution of the various metal pollutant in the various sampled sites. Soil samples were collected from thirteen different sites on the farmlands along the bank of the river and the dam. The samples were analyzed using Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis (INAA) and the result obtained indicate that the concentration level of some of the elements determined were above maximum allowable concentration (MAC) value while some below the (MAC) values for example the concentration range for Cr was (16 ± 2 – 47 ±3) ppm, Sb was (0.18 ± 0.04 – 14.2 ± 7) ppm, Zn was (21.8 ± 4 – 145 ± 7) ppm and the maximum values for these ranges exceed the (MAC) value recommended for Agricultural soils while the concentration ranges for As was (0.46 ± 0.12 – 1.0 ± 0.2)ppm, Co was (1.6 ± 0.3 – 5.3 ± 0.4) ppm, Vn was (14.6 ± 2.32 – 29 ± 2) ppm with the maximum value for these ranges being below the MAC values given by some countries. The elements obtained from samples collected from different study areas along the bank of river Ngadda and Alau dam were analyzed for similarity distribution of the study area using mathematical tool of cluster analysis technique employing hierarchical procedure and using WARD’s method. The result obtained produce a dendrogram consisting of two clusters comprising of six and seven sites with percentage similarity of 96.5% and 90.8% respectively with one site as an outlier. It is recommended that since some of the trace metals namely Cr, Sb, and Zn assessed in the fadama soils indicates concentrations above the MAC values, they can posed negative health implications to consumers of food which were cultivated on soils from the study area, therefore there is the need to condition the soils before using it for farming so as to make it suitable for food crop farming. From the results obtained from this and presented, it can be clearly observed that the concentrations of some of the toxic trace elements analyzed and determined in this research were found to be above the MAC values given by some countries for soils to be used for agricultural purposes while others were within the range of the MAC values and some were below the limit given by some countries. However, even for soil samples that were having concentration below the MAC values since the soils were used for agricultural purposes it will be of great importance that such studies and investigations on such soils be carried out periodically so as to ascertain and monitor the levels of this metal toxicants and where the level of metal pollutants were above the MAC values there is the need to conditioned the soils so as to remedy the concentration of the pollutants before using the soils for agricultural purposes since the plants may absorb these metal toxicants and it will accumulate above threshold level thereby causing negative effect on the use of the soils.